Women scientists and their contributions are largely missing from compulsory science learning materials used by UK school examination boards, according to new research from the University of Cambridge. The study found that just one woman appeared among 86 scientists mentioned in Key Stage 4 (KS4) science specifications, which cover GCSE-level and equivalent qualifications.
The research, published in the British Educational Research Journal, analysed specifications from the UK’s six main examination boards across biology, chemistry, environmental science, geology, physics and astronomy. Rosalind Franklin, whose X-ray crystallography research contributed to the discovery of DNA’s double-helix structure, was the only woman identified in the KS4 materials. Even her contribution appeared in just one specification.
The researchers, Dr Greg J Cooke, Skyla B White and Stephanie Buttigieg, collaborated with the IncludeHer movement to examine how women’s scientific achievements are represented in school curricula. They found that several important discoveries included in compulsory learning materials were made by women, yet their names and contributions were not explicitly acknowledged in the specifications.
The team argues that relatively small changes to existing curricula could address these omissions without requiring substantial restructuring of the science syllabus. Including the achievements of women scientists, including Nobel Prize winners, could help students understand the history of scientific discovery and encourage more girls to pursue science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) subjects.
Gender Gap in Advanced Science Subjects Raises Concerns
The researchers identified a potential relationship between the gender representation of scientists in compulsory learning materials and the subjects students choose to study at higher levels.
Although girls typically outperform boys in most STEM subjects at KS4, boys are significantly more likely to choose physics, mathematics and further mathematics at Key Stage 5 (KS5), which covers A-level and equivalent qualifications. The proportion of girls opting for mathematics and further mathematics is now lower than it was in 2005.
The study found a “compelling” correlation between the gender representation of scientists encountered by students at KS4 and the STEM subjects girls subsequently choose at KS5. The researchers suggest that the transition between these educational stages may be a critical point for retaining girls in science.
Physics specifications at KS4 were found to contain a particularly strong concentration of male scientists. The researchers suggest that this lack of representation could be one factor influencing the considerably lower proportion of girls who continue studying physics at KS5 compared with boys.
Biology and chemistry, which are slightly more popular among girls than boys at KS5, showed a different pattern. Their KS4 specifications contained fewer references to individual scientists overall.
The team acknowledges that women’s under-representation in STEM careers results from multiple, complex factors. However, the researchers argue that increasing the visibility of women scientists in school materials could help challenge stereotypes about who can succeed in science.
Research on relatable STEM role models has indicated that seeing people with whom students can identify can strengthen their sense of belonging in science and encourage positive attitudes towards scientific careers. The Cambridge team believes that making women’s achievements part of compulsory learning could help more girls envisage a future in STEM.
Dr Greg J Cooke said: “The women we recommend for the updated science specifications have helped shape the modern world. It is important that students understand the iterative history of science and the context behind these discoveries to frame their knowledge when assessing the bigger picture: How did Susan Solomon help save the ozone layer? How did Lise Meitner’s work eventually lead to the dawn of the nuclear age? It is long overdue that we teach these inspiring stories about women.”
Researchers Recommend Including More Women Scientists
The Cambridge researchers identified specific opportunities to incorporate women scientists’ contributions into existing examination specifications.
For KS4 biology, they recommend including Rosalind Franklin in every specification, rather than limiting references to her work to a single one.
In chemistry, they suggest introducing Marie Skłodowska-Curie during lessons on atomic structure and isotopes. Curie won two Nobel Prizes, discovered polonium and radium, and coined the term “radioactivity”.
For physics, the researchers recommend including Lise Meitner, a nuclear physicist who contributed to the discovery of nuclear fission and provided the first theoretical explanation of the process. Despite her contribution, she was controversially excluded from a Nobel Prize.
The study also examined KS5 examination specifications and found that only three of the 181 scientists mentioned were women: Rosalind Franklin, geologist Marie Tharp and seismologist Inge Lehmann.
The researchers recommend including Dorothy Hodgkin’s work in KS5 biology lessons on protein structure. Hodgkin won a Nobel Prize for using X-ray crystallography to determine the structures of important biological molecules, including insulin.
They also highlighted the omission of Annie Jump Cannon, whose work contributed to the development of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, a tool taught in school science despite her name not appearing in the specifications.
Skyla B White said: “Despite years of effort to achieve gender parity in science, it is disappointing that students in the UK can complete their science education without learning the names of the women behind the scientific discoveries they study. This matters because it is at this stage, when students begin to choose which subjects to pursue further, that the gender divide grows. It’s fantastic that students learn about the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, for example, but it was built on the work of Annie Jump Cannon, who is not mentioned. You can’t tell one story without the other.”
Stephanie Buttigieg said: “Research has shown that relatable role models can help keep more girls in STEM by strengthening their sense of belonging in science and fostering positive attitudes towards scientific careers. When school science specifications leave out women’s names, they miss a real opportunity to help girls see a future for themselves in science and continue to reinforce the harmful stereotype that science is mainly for men.”
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